Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery A literature review of recent research with recommendations for managers ComANNmA SuANnTOi,c HEaIDtI iHnUBgER -wSTEiAtRhNS , tAhND eHO LpLIEu SbMITlHic about wildland fire: FALL 2A0 2r1esource for practitioners to plan engagement strategies This infographic summarizes recommendations from a review of 32 research studies about communicating with the public about wildland fire and smoke.1 How to use it Recommendations were grouped into three categories: Practitioners can use this document to brain- 1 the process of communication, storm ways to engage in communication 2 key content to include in messages, and about wildland fire with the diverse groups 3 which messengers and communication media to use: in areas where you work. The list of recom- mendations presented here is not exhaustive, rather it is a starting point for consideration. Content What might you include This work was conducted by the University of Oregon, in your message(s)? and funded by the Northwest Fire Science Consortium. Process Messengers The Northwest Fire Science Consortium works to accelerate the & media awareness, understanding, and adoption of wildland fire science in How might you Which messengers and/or Washington and Oregon, and is funded by the Joint Fire Science effectively engage with media outlets might you use to Program’s Fire Science Exchange Network.your audience(s)? reach your audience(s)? 1 Santo, Huber-Stearns and Smith. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery: A literature review of recent research with recom- mendations for managers. Ecosystem Workforce Program Working Paper # 109. Fall 2021. University of Oregon. E C O S Y S T E M W O R K F O R C E P R O G R A M W O R K I N G P A P E R N U M B E R 1 0 9 Ecosystem EcosystemO loiiEaoN School of Journalism and CommunicationWorkforce Program Oregl>n State UniversiWtyo rkforce ProgramCenter for Science Research Communication Extension Service About the authors Anna Santo is a faculty research assistant at the Ecosystem Workforce Program, Institute for a Sustainable Environment, University of Oregon. Heidi Huber-Stearns is an associate research professor and director of the Ecosystem Workforce Program and Institute for a Sustainable Environment, University of Oregon. Hollie Smith is an assistant professor of science and environmental communication at the School of Journalism and Communication and associate director of the Center for Science Communication Research, University of Oregon. About the Northwest Fire Science Consortium: The Northwest Fire Science Consortium works to accelerate the awareness, understanding, and adoption of wildland fire science in Washington and Oregon. It connects managers, practitioners, scientists, local communi- ties, and collaboratives working on fire issues on forest and range lands. The Northwest Fire Science Consortium is one of the 15 regional exchanges established by the Joint Fire Science Program’s Fire Science Exchange Network to bring fire science users together to address regional fire management needs and challenges. Each regional ex- change provides current and regionally relevant wildland fire science information to users in the region. For more information: http://www.nwfirescience.org/ Acknowledgements This synthesis was made possible with funds from the Joint Fire Science Program and the University of Oregon. We thank Autumn Ellison for document layout and design, Casey Davis of Sola Design for design of figures 1 and 2 (pages 8 and 9), and Alison Deak for creating an author affiliations database and editing this report. We also appreciate the reviewers of this document, including Dr. Heidi A. Roop (University of Minnesota, Department of Soil, Water, and Climate), Janean Creighton (Oregon State University College of Forestry), and Michael R. Coughlan (University of Oregon Ecosystem Workforce Program). All photos public domain courtesy of USDA Forest Service Flickr accounts. For more information about the Northwest Fire Science Consortium: Janean Creighton Oregon State University Corvallis, OR 97331 nw.fireconsortium@oregonstate.edu www.nwfirescience.org/ For additional information about this report: Ecosystem Workforce Program, Institute for a Sustainable Environment 5247 University of Oregon Eugene, OR 97503-5247 hhuber@uoregon.edu http://ewp.uoregon.edu The University of Oregon is an equal-opportunity, affirmative-action institution committed to cultural diversity and compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act. This publication will be made available in accessible formats upon request. ©2019 University of Oregon. 0 \ UNIVERSITY OF OREGON Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 1 Abstract How to use this report This literature review synthesizes empiric- Authors recommended using the tables in this al research about wildland fire communi- report and the companion guide1 of summary cation to provide practitioners, such as findings to problem solve contextually and cultur- land managers, public health and safety officials, ally relevant strategies appropriate to their own community groups, and others working with the roles and situations. These resources provide a public, evidence-based recommendations for com- wide range of information and recommendations munication work. Key findings demonstrate that for practitioners wishing to communicate with it is important to recognize communication as a the public about wildland fire, including: context-specific and dynamic process, not a linear pathway or prescription, or one-size-fits-all ap- 1. People and places to engage in wildland fire proach. We found that practitioners engaging in communication (Figure 2, page 8); this work may be most effective when they get to 2. Approaches for wildland fire communication know their diverse publics, engage in honest and engagement (Figure 3, page 9); sincere relationship building, and communicate 3. How to strategically select and leverage dif- in ways that are locally and culturally relevant. ferent communication media and messengers This review offers recommendations from the aca- to accomplish wildland fire communication demic literature for how and where to engage in goals (Table 2, page 11); communication about wildland fire and smoke 4. Specific content that communicators could from wildland fire. These recommendations are include when engaging with the public about not intended to be a set of rigid prescriptions; rath- wildland fire (Table 3, page 12); er, they are intended to provide a starting point for 5. Processes communicators can use to en- practitioners to think about the multiple ways to gage with the public about wildland fire and engage with the diverse groups with whom they smoke (Table 4, page 13). work. 1 Communicating with the public about wildland fire: A resource for practitioners to plan engagement strategies. 2021. Available at: https://ewp.uoregon.edu/sites/ewp.uoregon.edu/files/Wildfire_Communication_Guide.pdf. 2 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Introduction Wildland fire,2 is rapidly increasing in frequency, Researchers have studied effective strategies for intensity, and impacts to communities and eco- communicating with the public about natural haz- systems around the world. As a result, people liv- ards for decades. Several previous research syn- ing in fire-prone landscapes must regularly make theses have offered lists of “best practices” for risk decisions about how to live with and respond to re- communication. For example, curring instances of wildland fire and smoke. Com- • Sellnow et al. (2009) recommended: involving munication about wildland fire and smoke can help the public in an exchange of information; com- people mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover municating with honesty, openness, and access- from wildland fire and smoke by providing notifi- ibility; including risk communication in policy cation to help people anticipate and mitigate poten- decisions; understanding communication as a tial impacts, helping people stay calm by increasing process; accounting for inherent uncertainty understanding of potential hazards, or increasing in risk and acknowledging that risk tolerance public acceptance of fire management strategies might be different for everyone; designing that can help protect them (Olsen et al. 2014). Con- communication to be culturally sensitive; and sequently, there is an urgent need to evaluate and working with credible information sources to improve communication approaches between fire disseminate information. managers, researchers, and diverse publics. 2 Defined as “Any non-structure fire that occurs in vegetation or natural fuels” (National Wildfire Coordinating Group Glossary of Wildland Fire, https://www.nwcg.gov/about-the-nwcg-glossary-of-wildland-fire). This includes terms such as wildfire, forest wildfire, and brush fire. We also consider smoke events from wildland fires to be encompassed in our definition of “wildland fire” and its impacts. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 3 • Similarly, Seeger (2006) recommended: en- gaging in pre-event planning; understanding public concern and treating the public as a legit- imate partner; proactively working with the media; providing concrete actions that people can take; being honest throughout communica- tion while working with credible sources and acknowledging uncertainty. • Toman and Shindler (2006, p. 112) proposed four principles of effective communication, 0 which they explain as: BURN BAN 1. Effective communication is a product of ef- IN EFFECT fective planning 2. Both unidirectional (one-way) and inter- active approaches to communication have a role in public outreach. The strengths of NO BURNING each should be used to build a program. 'l>R 'f;i:AMPF11RES 3. Communication activities that focus on lo- science related to wildland fire, inclusive of, but not cal conditions and concerns can decrease limited to, communication (e.g., McCaffrey 2015; the uncertainty that citizens associate with Toman and Shindler 2006). Second, several of the fire management and build their capacity to reviews were conducted more than five to ten years participate in solutions. ago, when wildland fire conditions and communi- 4. A comprehensive communication strat- cation tools were notably different than they are to- egy will emphasize meaningful interaction day. Third, some reviews were rapid in nature, syn- among participants and build trust along thesizing only a small number of empirical research the way. publications (e.g., Fish et al. 2017). Finally, many of these reviews’ recommendations were conceptual A more limited set of literature reviews have specif- in nature and did not offer tangible examples for ically synthesized communication strategies with- where and how practitioners could implement the in the context of wildland fire (see, for example, principles they put forth. Brady and Webb 2013; Steelman and McCaffrey 2013; Fish et al. 2017; Westcott et al. 2017; Remen- The purpose of this document is to build on previ- ick 2018). While these reviews provide insight into ous research and literature reviews by summariz- the research that has been done related to wildland ing recent empirical research about how wildland fire communication, their utility for wildland fire fire managers, agencies, and other practitioners managers, agency personnel, practitioners, and can effectively communicate with the public about professional communicators is limited in several preparation, response, and recovery from wildland ways. First, the scope and scale of these reviews fire. Specifically, we (1) provide an overview of the were either very specific or very broad. Some of the relevant literature on this topic, (2) present a short reviews were very specific, such as focusing on a catalogue of communication strategies and engage- single dimension of communication (e.g., the util- ment approaches ideas, derived from this literature, ity of using maps for communication, as in Stieb et and (3) summarize key recommendations made al. 2019; the effectiveness of communication apps, in this literature regarding how, where, and what as in Kulemeka 2015; communicating with animal to communicate about wildland fire and smoke owners, as in Westcott et al. 2017) or focusing on events. This work is intended to serve as a resource a limited geography or one type of wildfire (e.g., to guide those engaging in wildland fire communi- Brady and Webb 2013). Other reviews were very cation and scholars seeking a better understanding broad and focused on multiple dimensions of social of research gaps and opportunities. 4 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery about media coverage). We further removed articles that were related, but not central, to our research topic, such as those primarily investigating ecology, health impacts, or risk perceptions of wildland fire and smoke. We systematically searched three databases using keywords as search criteria. We searched Web of Science, the Social Science Premium Collection, and Google Scholar to ensure that we captured arti- cles from a broad set of search engines and sources. We adapted the following search terms for three databases: Search ALL FIELDS and include if contains (wildfire* OR “wildland fire”) AND (communi- cat* OR outreach OR message* OR extension) AND (public OR stakeholder* OR communit* OR population*) Approach Search ALL FIELDS and exclude if contains (“spread* like wildfire”) OR (“digital wildfire”) We conducted a literature review from May to Au- gust 2021 in consultation with a professional re- In total, we identified 1,364 potential articles search librarian at University of Oregon. The en- through our search process. One author screened tire body of peer-reviewed and gray literature on titles and abstracts to remove articles that clearly disaster communication, risk communication, nat- did not meet the inclusion criteria and all three au- ural hazards communication is far too large for any thors reviewed the 397 remaining abstracts to deter- single paper to encompass. Therefore, we focused mine whether or not they met the inclusion criteria. our review specifically on best practices for com- After filtering, we identified 32 total articles to in- municating with the public about fire impacts and clude in this review. Our review and paper elimin- fire risk, which was identified previously as a high ation process is detailed in Figure 1. All searches priority wildland fire communication research were completed the week of May 14, 2021. need by the Northwest Fire Science Consortium’s wildland fire science needs assessment across Ore- The lead author read each of the 32 included gon and Washington (Ellison et al. 2019). articles and systematically catalogued and para- phrased information about three key areas of con- We bound our review by four search criteria to en- tent. First, they catalogued the article’s authors, au- sure the articles we reviewed were relevant and the thor affiliations, study context, objectives, findings, information they contained was reliable. Our cri- communication strategies or ideas supported by teria were that each article needed to: (1) be peer-re- findings, and recommendations about best practi- viewed, (2) present empirical (i.e., based on obser- ces for communicating with the public about wild- vation or experience rather than theory or logic ex- land fire and smoke. Second, the same author also clusively) research about communication strategies systematically recorded any text in the articles that guided recommendations made in the article, that mentioned venues (e.g., physical places, com- (3) be published recently (2010 through present munity groups, media channels) where communi- (May 2021)), and (4) explicitly focus on managers’ cation could occur as well as approaches for how communication about wildland fire or smoke from to conduct outreach or engagement at those venues wildland fire with the public (e.g., exclude articles (e.g., disseminating print, radio, television of social Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 5 media posts; hosting meetings and events; develop- tions about: (1) the medium and/or messenger for ing alert systems; public signage). The same author communication, (2) the content to include in com- then thematically coded and summarized the re- munication messages, (3) the process for how to sulting list of communication ideas in two ways: (1) engage with and communicate with different com- people and places where communicators can con- munities, and (4) future research needs. duct outreach in a community, and (2) mechanism, tools, and media through which communication We endeavored to increase the reliability of our an- can occur. Third, the same author recorded ex- alysis through two strategies. First, all three auth- cerpts in which the articles’ authors made explicit ors reviewed each other’s coding to identify and re- recommendations regarding communication. All solve incongruities; authors met regularly through- three authors then thematically coded, organized, out the project’s duration to review, discuss, and and summarized recommendations from the arti- resolve disagreements. Second, three external re- cles into four categories, including recommenda- viewers reviewed this document. Figure 1 Overview of literature review and article elimination process Identification of articles via databases and registers Articles identified from: Web of Science (n=298) the Social Science Premium Articles removed before screening: Collection (n= 545) Duplicate articles (n=179) Google Scholar (n=521) Non-peer-reviewed articles (n= 19) Total articles (n=1,364) ! Articles screened for eligibility Articles excluded (n=1,166) (n=769) ~ Articles sought for retrieval Articles not retrieved ~ (n=397) (n=0) ~ Articles assessed for eligibility _(at least two_ author_s read a_bstrac,] ·[Articles excludedt) Off-topic (n=356)[ (n=397) No e_mpirical research~ (n=9) I ,. Articles included in review (n=32) Figure adapted from Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021; 372:n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71 Inclusion Screening Indentification 6 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Findings Below we summarize the 32 articles we reviewed, We identified 111 unique authors with 51 unique including an overview of publication sources, au- institutional affiliations, of which the majority thor affiliations, and the findings presented in the were academic (n = 33). Non-academic affiliations articles. Individual summaries of each paper are included government (n = 9), nonprofit organiza- presented in Appendix A. tion (n = 7), Tribal (n = 1), or unknown (n = 1). The affiliated organizations were located in the USA (n = 28), Australia (n = 13), Canada (n = 4, including I. Article sources, authors, and Sandy First Nation), India (n = 2), Sweden (n = 2), author affiliations and South Africa (n = 1). Reviewed articles reviewed came from 22 different peer-reviewed journals (Table 1), spanning a wide array of disciplines. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 7 Table 1 Summary of publication titles Journal title Number of articles Article ID* Environmental management 3 4, 20, 27 International Journal of Wildland Fire 3 21, 22, 32 Natural Hazards 3 17, 28, 29 Australian Journal of Emergency Management 2 5, 24 International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 2 2, 3 Journal of Rural Studies 2 8, 23 Society and Natural Resources 2 14, 25 California Agriculture 1 19 Communication Studies 1 15 Corporate Communications 1 13 Fire Ecology 1 6 Forest Policy and Economics 1 18 Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research 1 1 Frontiers in Public Health 1 16 Geographical Research 1 10 Global Environmental Change 1 7 Information, Communication & Society 1 31 International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 1 11 Journal of Applied Communication Research 1 26 Journal of Health Communication 1 30 Natural Hazards Review 1 12 Risks, Hazards and Crisis in Public Policy 1 9 * Article IDs with main findings are in Appendix A, page 18; full citations are on pages 23–24. 8 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery II. Community engagement ideas The articles a+lso presented a wide variety of ap-from literature review People andp Prolachces sthat coulCd obem umseufunl ifcora teinogang iTngo othles , Activities, and Strategiespublic about wildfireB arnadin ssmtoorkme .w Whee ridee anntidfi ehdo w10 6to engage with the public about wildfire Key Community Locuantiioqnuse ideas for ways that wildland fire communi- The articles presented a wide variety of examples cation engagement caRnis ko cascsuers,s wmehnitc /h P wlanen finugrther cat-• S Informative Resourcefor how and where to engage with thoe c hpooulsb (altihcletic events, open houses, and ther events thiant bring ecogmomriuzneityd t oignetthoe ra) typol•o Fgirye r ioskf a3nd6 h daziafrdf easrseesnsmt eanptsp forr oreasicdehnetss , • Call-in number (call center, 1-800 number, emergency hotline) communication about wildland fire an•d H esamlthocakree,. m Wedeic al, nuirsnincgl uhodmiensg tools, activi(atnide pse, rsaonadliz esdt rasasteessgmieensts (foFr ipgrivuatree p r3op).e rty owners) • Brochures, flyers, pamphlets, factsheets identified 45 unique examples of places• Loibrr vareiensues to These tools included• C, omfomru nietyx waildmfirep pllean, s,i bdueshafirse ssuruvicvahl p laanss, • Mobile applications and online resources such as blogs and interactive communicate. We grouped and summarized t including evacuation plans and maps• Local businhesessese audiovisual cues (e.g., billboards, maps, radio an- websites, electronic publications (fire prevention/home protection)• Monitoring data collection on private lands examples into a typology of 24 diffe•r Reenstta u“raPnetso apndle h otels • White papers (for policy makers, industry, etc.)nouncements, alarm•s F,ir ev riisdk aenod pflaenenidngs s,u rvseoysc oifa hlo mmeoewdneirsa ), • Maps of area risks, fire maps overlaid onto Google Earth and Places” to engage in communic•a Vtiisoitonr inefofrfmoarttiosn centeprsersonal learning •e Gxopveernrmient creegusl atio(en .agn.d, ordfiinealndce s, tinrcilupdsin,g • Information about defensible space and fire-safe native plants that (Figure 2). Venues included physical p• lTaaxcise/tsra nwsphoertarteio n shutttrleasi nings, conferenPceerseq)o,u irepmleannts nfoir nmigtig aatiosns iins tthae nWcUIe (e.g., homeowners can plant outreach could be conducted (e.g., key• Rcooumtinem markets • In ple and Places + Communication Tools, Activities, and Strategies unity • helping with communhi tteygr aetev fiarec iuntao taicocrned iptaltiaonn rseq),u ihreomsenttisn atg lo cal • List of emergency contact phone numbers Festivals and other local events ealth service locations such as schools, libraries, me•d Piucbalicl moefefiticngess, or taking advantage of comm Brain•s Wteolcromme bwaghs eforr ene wa rnesdide hntos, wgift btoag se ant egveantgs e with the public about wildfire • Preparednessu knitsity gatherings (e.g., and local businesses), communities •o Kre y nemeptwloyoerrsk ssp ecific ttoa ab lloicnalg a raeta sevents, ho Ksetyi nCgo pmimcnuincitsy, Loopceanti ohnosuses), de- Alerts/Warnings (e.g., organizations such as local sporting and book Meetings and Eventsveloping personali•z eScdh ooinls f(aothrlmetiac teivoennts , aonpedn hwouasersn, ainndg s Risk as•s ‘eResvsemrsee n91t1 ’/ s Pysltaenmn, tianrgget precise geographic areas andI ndfeolivremr aint ive Resource• Public meetings, open houses, community and clubs, homeowners’ associations), and key figures other events that bring community together) • Fire risk and haza(e.g., private propertyn eiinghfboorrhmooad tmieoentin,g spersonal phone several la rdn gausasegsessments for residents • Call-in number (call center, 1-800 number, emergency hotline) that, with support and encouragement, might be • Healthcare, medical, nursing homes (and personalized assessments for private property owners) • Brochures, flyers, pamphlets, factsheets Community Organizcaatliolsn so r door-to-doo•r I ntceraagnevncay smseientingg)s, beatwneden roesppopnosibrlteu gonv-ernment units • Emergency Alert Systems broadcasts, alarms, and sirens • Libraries • Commu•n iPtye rwsoildnafilriez epdla anlse,r tbsu (sdhefisrket ospu/rmvivoabli lpel acnosm, p uting systems) • Mobile applications and online resources such as blogs and interactive equipped or positioned to expand the •r each of com-Sporting clubs and groupitsi es to interact with• • Fie Lfiocrae ld ptripesr, smoeentinnges lin. the field, and community tours including evacuation plans and mapsl businesses websites, electronic publications (fire prevention/home protection) munication (e.g., government entities such as law • Tours with local media outlets • MonitorCinog mdamtau cnoilcleacttiioonn o Nn eptrivate lands• Restaurants and ho works/Interpersonal Commu•n Wichaitteio pnapers (for policy makers, industry, etc.)• Mothers’ and play groups • Public road shows atnedls public speeches • Fire risk and planning surveys of homeowne enforcement and emergency managem•e nt). • Visitor information centers • Conversations with incident manage rsm ent team represent•a tMivaep s of area risks, fire maps overlaid onto Google Earth Book clubs • Tabling or presenting at public events • Government regulation and ordinances, including • Information about defensible space and fire-safe native plants that • Service clubs • •T aCxoisn/fterraennscpeosrtation shuttles • Phone bank and personal phone calls requirem• Eemntasi lf olirs tmseitrivgsation in the WUI homeowners can plant • Religious groups • Routine markets • Integrate fire into accreditation requirements at local • • MFeestdiviaa • Personal and door to door visits for new residents and bus• inLiesst soefs emergency contact phone numbers Homeowner associations ls and other local events health service• Create county department communications programs for • Welcome bags for new residents, gift bags at events Figure 2 People and places to en• gChaamgbee rsi nof ceofmfmoerrctes to communicate• •Pw uRbaidliticoh m etehtineg spublic about • Preparedness kits • TV and films contacting industries Peoplew ialdnladn dP filareces + •C Huommanitamrianu ornganiiczaationtsion Tools, A•c Kteyi vemiptloiyeerss s,p eacifinc to a local areas• Facebook, Twitter, social dme dSia ptorstas otr ceamgpaiigenss Meetings and Events Alerts/Warnings • Newspaper and other print media • Public m Aedetvinegrst,i ospinegn houses, community and • ‘Reverse 911’ system, target precise geographic areas and deliver in Brainstorm where and how to enga • Signage in • Pgress wcointfehre tnhcees a pndu dbaillyi cbr ieafinbgos duutri nwg inilcdidfienrtse neighborhood meetipnugbslic and along roadways several languages • Interage•n Sctyic mkeeres toinrg csa brdest wine heinr erde scpaorsn saibndle vgaonvsernment units • Emergency Alert Systems broadcasts, alarms, and sirens Key Community Locations Government Community Organizations Education • Field tri•p sB,i lmlbeoeatridnsg sa nind t ehlee cfiterlodn, iac nrde acdoemr msiugnnisty tours • Personalized alerts (desktop/mobile computing systems) • Schools (athletic events, open houses, and • LRoicsakl eamsseergsesnmcye mnta n/ aPgleamnennint agnd fire • S•p Dorriltlisn: gsI nimcfluuolbarsmti oaann tadinv gder eo Rvuaepcsu oatuiornc e • Tours w•it hM laogcnael tms ewdiitah okuetyl epthsone numbers other events that bring community together) a• uFtirheo rriistkie asnd hazard assessments for residents • Mothers•’ Caanldl- ipn lnauym gbroeru (pcsa ll center, 1-800 number, emergency hotli•n eP)rinted m Communication Networks/Interpersonal Communication• Workshops and webinars • Public road shows aatnedr iaplusb ilnic m sapiel eches • Healthcare, medical, nursing homes • Lo(acnadl lpaewrs eonfaolirzceedm aessnet ssments for private property own•e rs) • Brochures, flyers, pamphlets, factsheets • Conversations with incident management team representative B• oTorakin cinlugb cso urses • Tabling or presenting at public events • Libraries • C• oCuonmtmy ucnoimty mwiisldsfiioren eplrasn asn, bdu oshthfierer sloucrvailv al plans, • Mobile applications and online resources such as blogs and interactive • Phone bank and personal phone calls goinvcelurndimnge netvacuation plans and maps • S•e Srcvhicoeo lc-bluabsesd education programs • Conferences • Email listservs • Local businesses • Monitoring data collection on private lands • R•e Dliegmioounss wtgraerotbiousinpte sps r,o ejelecctstronic publications (fire prevention/home protection) • Restaurants and hotels • • White papers (for policy makers, industry, etc.) Media • Personal and door to door visits for new residents and businesses • Fire risk and planning surveys of homeowners Homeowner associations • • Maps of area risks, fire maps overlaid onto Google• REadrtiho DESIGN caseydavisde •s iCgnre.caotem county department communications programs for Visitor information centers • Government regulation and ordinances, including • Chambe•r sIn ofofr mcoamtiomne arbcoeu t defensible space and fire-safe n• aTtViv ea npdla finlmts sthat contacting industries • Taxis/transportation shuttles requirements for mitigation in the WUI • Humanitahrioamne oorwgnaenrisz actaino npslant • Facebook, Twitter, social media posts or campaigns • Routine markets • Integrate fire into accreditation requirements at local • List of emergency contact phone numbers Advertising• Newspaper and other print media • Festivals and other local events health service • Welcome bags for new residents, gift bags at events • Signage in public and along roadways • Press conferences and daily briefings during incidents • Public meetings • Preparedness kits • Stickers or cards in hired cars and vansGovernment • Key employers specific to a local areas Alerts/Warnings Education • Billboards and electronic reader signsMeetings and Events • Local em•e ‘Rrgeevenrcsye m91a1n’ saygsetemme, ntat ragnedt pfirreec ise geographic a•re Darsi lalsn: ds imdeulliavetiro nin and evacuation • Magnets with key phone numbers• Public meetings, open houses, community and authoritiesseveral languages • Workshops and webinars • Printed materials in mailneighborhood meetings • Local law enf • Interagency meetings between responsible government units • Eme orgrceenmcye Anlte rt Systems broadcasts, alarms, and• sTirraeinnsing courses C ommunity Organizations • County commissioners and other local • Field trips, meetings in the field, and community tours • Personalized alerts (desktop/mobile computing sy•s tSecmhos)ol-based education programs • Sporting clubs and groups government• Tours with local media outlets • Demonstration projects • Mothers’ and play groups Communication Networks/Interpersonal Communication• Public road shows and public speeches • • Conversations with incident management team representative DESIGN caseydavisdesign.com Book clubs • Tabling or presenting at public events • Phone bank and personal phone calls • Service clubs • Conferences • Email listservs • Religious groups Media • Personal and door to door visits for new residents and businesses• Homeowner associations • Radio • Create county department communications programs for • Chambers of commerce • TV and films contacting industries • Humanitarian organizations • Facebook, Twitter, social media posts or campaigns Advertising • Newspaper and other print media • Signage in public and along roadways • Press conferences and daily briefings during incidents • Stickers or cards in hired cars and vans Government Education • Billboards and electronic reader signs • Local emergency management and fire • Drills: simulation and evacuation • Magnets with key phone numbers authorities • Workshops and webinars • Printed materials in mail • Local law enforcement • Training courses • County commissioners and other local • School-based education programs government • Demonstration projects DESIGN caseydavisdesign.com Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 9 Figure 3 Communication approaches: Tools, activities, and strategies to use in efforts to communicate with the public about wildland fire People and Places + Communication Tools, Activities, and Strategies Brainstorm where and how to engage with the public about wildfire Key Community Locations • Schools (athletic events, open houses, and Risk assessment / Planning Informative Resource other events that bring community together) • Fire risk and hazard assessments for residents • Call-in number (call center, 1-800 number, emergency hotline) • Healthcare, medical, nursing homes (and personalized assessments for private property owners) • Brochures, flyers, pamphlets, factsheets • Libraries • Community wildfire plans, bushfire survival plans, • Mobile applications and online resources such as blogs and interactive including evacuation plans and maps • Local businesses websites, electronic publications (fire prevention/home protection)• Monitoring data collection on private lands • Restaurants and hotels • White papers (for policy makers, industry, etc.)• Fire risk and planning surveys of homeowners • • Maps of area risks, fire maps overlaid onto Google EarthVisitor information centers • Government regulation and ordinances, including • Information about defensible space and fire-safe native plants that • Taxis/transportation shuttles requirements for mitigation in the WUI homeowners can plant • Routine markets • Integrate fire into accreditation requirements at local • List of emergency contact phone numbers • Festivals and other local events health service • Welcome bags for new residents, gift bags at events • Public meetings • Preparedness kits • Key employers specific to a local areas Meetings and Events Alerts/Warnings • Public meetings, open houses, community and • ‘Reverse 911’ system, target precise geographic areas and deliver in neighborhood meetings several languages • Emergency Alert Systems broadcasts, alarms, and sirens C ommunity Organizations • Interagency meetings between responsible government units • Field trips, meetings in the field, and community tours • Personalized alerts (desktop/mobile computing systems) • Sporting clubs and groups • Tours with local media outlets • Mothers’ and play groups Communication Networks/Interpersonal Communication• Public road shows and public speeches • • Conversations with incident management team representative Book clubs • Tabling or presenting at public events • Phone bank and personal phone calls • Service clubs • Conferences • Email listservs • Religious groups Media • Personal and door to door visits for new residents and businesses• Homeowner associations • Radio • Create county department communications programs for • Chambers of commerce • TV and films contacting industries • Humanitarian organizations • Facebook, Twitter, social media posts or campaigns Advertising • Newspaper and other print media • Signage in public and along roadways • Press conferences and daily briefings during incidents • Stickers or cards in hired cars and vans Government Education • Billboards and electronic reader signs • Local emergency management and fire • Drills: simulation and evacuation • Magnets with key phone numbers authorities • Workshops and webinars • Printed materials in mail • Local law enforcement • Training courses • County commissioners and other local • School-based education programs government • Demonstration projects DESIGN caseydavisdesign.com 10 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery III. Recommendations for Medium and messenger for engaging communicating with the public in communication about wildland fire and smoke We identified eight unique recommendations re- lated to how those wishing to communicate with We identified over 250 instances in which authors the public about wildland fire and smoke can stra- made explicit recommendations about communi- tegically select and leverage different media and cating with the public about wildland fire and messengers to accomplish their goals (Table 2). Rec- smoke. We identified and paraphrased 144 unique ommendations under this theme were present in 20 recommendations after reducing redundancy (i.e., of the 32 total articles we reviewed. Overall, these authors restating a recommendation multiple times recommendations suggested that knowing your within the same paper). Recommendations ranged audience, including who they trust and where they from very specific, place-based recommendations go for information, is critically important. Many of to general principles that were broadly applicable. these articles suggested that getting to know your We organized recommendations into four themes: audience is something that should typically take medium and messenger for engaging in communi- place before emergency communication. cation (Table 2), content of communication messa- ges (Table 3), process of communication (Table 4), and future research needs (page 14). Below we sum- Engage and know your audience, marize the recommendations by each theme and and reach out the community to offer examples for how recommendations were im- understand which information sources plemented or conceptualized in different research they trust and use. articles. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 11 Table 2 Recommendations regarding medium and messenger for communicating about wildland fire and smoke Recommendation Sources* Specific examples with sources Create audience-specific 10 Offer women-specific trainings or events (10). communication Leverage social media to Use Twitter to amplify and reinforce messages (31). amplify simple messages, Present a simple message on social media and include links to more as a gateway to more 15, 16, 18, 31, 32 detailed air quality and health resources (16). complex information, and to promote interaction Solicit questions and feedback on social media, use subsequent with audiences posts to respond (32). Offer a variety of types of interaction (e.g., simple messages to interactive workshops or collaborative processes) in multiple Communicate via diverse 6, 21, 24, 32 languages to meet the preferences of a diverse public (21). media outlets for diverse audiences Integrate arts into programming by, for example, convening scientists, managers, and artists to co-produce science-based artwork that can be exhibited publicly (6). Use direct outreach Use automated calling systems, door-to-door canvassing, site visits, approaches with 30, 32 public information meetings, and public service announcements in vulnerable and at-risk vulnerable communities (30, 32). populations Share information via Concentrate outreach on television and websites in communities news sources that 32 where people most often get daily weather information from those members of the public media (32). are in the habit of using Draw upon interactive Prioritize facilitated conversations, interviews, workshops, or media to build 3, 4, 8, 10, 21, 22, community listening sessions as tools for building relationships with relationships and mutual 25, 32 communities (4, 8). understanding Utilize existing citizen networks and individual Assign formal or informal outreach roles to volunteers from networks 6, 10, 14, 22, 26, 32 "influencers" to of neighbors/interested individuals (14, 26). disseminate messages Ask authority figures (e.g., emergency management and public health agencies) or well-respected leaders (e.g., volunteer Engage authoritative and 4, 9, 15, 16, 28, 29, firefighters, those who have experienced fire) to transmit information trusted messengers to 32 (4, 15, 28). disseminate messages Concentrate outreach on local television in communities where people feel local television is the most trustworthy news outlet (32). * Article IDs with main findings are in Appendix A, page 18; full citations are on pages 23–24. 12 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Content of communication Process of communication We identified seven unique recommendations re- lated to the specific content that communicators Build understanding of, relationships should include when engaging with the public with, and capacity to support about wildland fire and smoke (Table 3). Recom- communities’ needs and priorities. mendations under this theme were present in 16 of the 32 total articles we reviewed. Overall, authors We identified 11 unique recommendations related recommended including key hazard and safety in- to the processes communicators can use to suc- formation, but also suggested using a style that was cessfully engage with the public about wildland specific, clear, actionable, engaging, and positive in fire and smoke (Table 4). Overall, authors rec- tone. They also recommended including elements ommended making efforts to intentionally build of communication that would make the risk, haz- greater understanding of, relationships with, and ard, or desired behaviors more relatable (e.g., foot- capacity to support the needs and priorities of the age of familiar places or people). communities with whom wildland fire communi- cators are engaging. Many of the recommendations Include key information in specific, emphasized the need to dedicate time and resour- ces to build enduring, trusting relationships with clear, actionable, and relatable communities. These relationships would help prac- messages using appropriate tone. titioners learn about, recognize, and learn to value the communities’ goals, values, and knowledge. Several process-related recommendations focused on prioritizing, coordinating, and working with community partners. Table 3 Recommendations regarding message content for communicating about wildland fire and smoke Recommendation Sources* Specific examples with sources Messages should be specific, clear, actionable, and 18, 28, 30, Make messages specific and clear to reduce the need for additional information appropriately complex for each 31, 32 searches and not overwhelm audiences (18, 30). audience Include hazards and 3, 11,15, Include information about fire suppression status, evacuation center name and safety info 16, 17, 22, address, road closures, health impacts of smoke, and parcel-specific information for 30, 31, 32 landowners (3, 17, 20). Share archival footage of past fires in familiar places, spatial mapping of fire 4, 5, 12, movement, or personal testimony from local people (5). Include familiar faces and places 30 Explain what other people typically do or think should be done to protect themselves when wildland fire or smoke exposure occurs (12). Include strategy and rationale 11, 21, 25, Communicate the purpose and spatial context of proposed agency actions (21, 28). info, with details about 28 Explain limitations of scientific risk modeling and conflicting recommendations made limitations by different agencies (11, 25). Include coping and recovery info 15 Include information about obtaining disaster aid, especially for long-lasting crises (15). Use a positive or supportive tone 15 Include positive language, such as inspirational and gratitude messages (15). Include well-designed maps that illustrate key fire and evacuation information.** Use Include visual elements 3, 30 pictures or graphics to illustrate desirable actions or to clearly label recommended items (e.g., labeling HEPA filters, or N95 respirators in a store) (3, 30). * Article IDs with main findings are in Appendix A, page 18; full citations are on pages 23–24. ** See Cao et al. 2016 (p.192, Table 8) for a summary of findings about optimal designs, critical text descriptors, and potential cartographic improvements for wildfire warning messages Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 13 Table 4 Recommendations regarding process for communicating about wildland fire and smoke Recommendation Sources* Specific examples with sources Anticipate and prepare Be prepared to manage local expectations when community engagement programs end for future obstacles 15, 24 (24). Build familiarity and Make it convenient for local community members to interact with local agency relationships between fire 1, 4, 7, 20, representatives, local law enforcement, and local fire departments before fires happen, personnel and communities 27, 28, 29 such as at community events (e.g., via citizen science initiatives, community tours, (especially before fires) developing and implementing educational programs) (1, 27, 29). Collaborate and partner Develop an understanding of, and relationships with, potential partner agencies and key with others to increase 9, 11, 13, community groups (e.g., NGOs, local governments, and media, researchers) (9, 22). capacity and ensure 22, 32 consistent messaging and Discuss communication plans among different agencies and groups to ensure that communication strategies messages are not contradictory (22). Actively discuss with communities the values most important to them (e.g., homes, livestock, cropland, forestland) and confirm with them (e.g., in public meetings) whether Continually learn about or not the agency’s understanding of local values is accurate. Share information about local community and local 4, 8, 21, likely outcomes of different management alternatives and allow communities to shape meanings or ideas. Tailor 25, 26, 28, decisions (21). communication and planning 31 Allow community members to contribute to defending their most important values by, for to local conditions, audiences, example, contributing to firefighting efforts (8). and decision-making processes Learn about the diverse groups of people within a community, how communication works among them (e.g., existing social networks, communication pathways), the most effective ways to meet local communication needs, and local understandings of wildland fire (8). Promote opportunities for respectful dialogue about different understandings of wildland fire (e.g., through informal exchange of stories or formal methods like Q-method, fuzzy Create processes for 13, 26, 27 cognitive mapping, futures visioning, scenario building). Create avenues for community overcoming intractability involvement in formal decision-making (e.g., multi-party monitoring). When differences cannot be resolved, pursue management options that are relatively insensitive to points of disagreement (26, 27). Ensure agency policies allow local field staff (who are willing) to engage with the public about areas of contention or disagreement with the agency’s plans and creatively Foster creativity, discretion to 1, 12, 13, address local disputes (rather than, for example, bringing in unknown outside legal act, and humility among local 15, 20 experts to resolve conflicts) (1, 12, 15, 21).leadership Encourage leaders to focus on mitigating the negative effects of crises rather than managing reputations (15). Reflect on, learn from, and adapt in accordance with past 2, 13, 26, Deliberately discuss collective goals, outcomes, and processes by, for example, adding experiences 27 interruptions in group processes to evaluate what is and is not working (13). Secure sufficient upfront 2, 3, 4, 10, Ensure that there is institutional support for communication efforts such that agencies investments,resources, and 15, 20, 22, and communities will have sufficient resources to train and support leaders, staff, and institutional commitments 24 volunteers to support communities’ needs (such as to create wildland fire evacuation plans) (2, 20, 24). Use available resources and Use existing message catalogues (e.g., http://hdl.handle.net/ 1903/24703) or toolkits 15, 28 communication checklists (e.g., Steelman and McCaffrey 2013, Table 1, p.689-690) to evaluate communication (15, 28). Engage in interactions that are sincere, honest, genuine, 4, 20, 21, Engage in sincere and honest interactions and genuine discussion of problems, friendly, open, and realistic 22, 28 solutions, and decision-making processes (22). Preemptively identify vulnerable communities and try to avoid impacting them. Develop Learn about inequities in the 8, 10, 11, an understanding of inequities that define many disaster-prone communities (8, 22). community and make a plan 13, 16, 22, to reach vulnerable groups 30, 32 Involve, empower, and target communication to vulnerable groups, such as rural, homeless, children, elderly populations, or people in high-risk areas (10,11). * Article IDs with main findings are in Appendix A, page 18; full citations are on pages 23–24. 14 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Future research needs of individual actions when facing wildland fire threats [25]; possible interventions for increasing Finally, we identified and categorized 50 recom- risk mitigation on private property [17]; behav- mendations about areas of future research to bet- iors during smoke events [11] and wildland fire ter inform communication about wildland fire events and threats [23, 25]; and how climate vari- and smoke. We identified five primary categories ability affects people’s responses [27]. of these recommendations for future research, in- cluding: • Linking to disaster research. Authors described a need to: link findings about wildland fire re- • Effectiveness of messenger, medium, content or sponse to other disaster arenas [9]; understand process used. Many authors identified different how communities, organizations, and policies evaluative needs related to, for example: effect- interact beyond the initial response period [26]; iveness of messages that use different norms or look for factors that affect messaging during dif- analogies [11, 12]; effectiveness of information ferent types of disasters [31]; and understand based on the order in which it is presented, pres- how different information sources are used or entation approaches, and public usability [3, 12]; deemed trustworthy to recipients across differ- how communities understand and value infor- ent disaster settings [29]. mation about wildland fire risk mitigation [4]; the effect of social media use during local signifi- • Longitudinal changes over time. Authors iden- cant wildland fire events; and whether strategies tified a need for more research over longer time deemed more effective by wildland fire profes- periods to improve understanding of individ- sionals (e.g., face-to-face interactions) would be uals’ behaviors and actions and how that might worth the extra cost [9]. Authors also identified inform communication efforts. They identified a need to evaluate the relationships between the a need for more research on long term effects source of the message and the messenger, specif- of evacuation (such as on economic health and ically with regard to Incident Management Team physical, mental, or emotional wellbeing) [2], and or local fire departments [29]; the effectiveness to see if at longer time intervals residents would of risk communication activities conducted dur- both perform wildland fire preparatory actions ing previous wildland fire smoke events; and the and remember recommended actions [12]. reach of different communication mechanisms • Indigenous populations. Authors recommended (e.g., radio, print, social media) [11]. researching barriers faced by Indigenous com- • Drivers of individual actions and behaviors. munities to conduct hazard preparedness, and Authors emphasized a need to better understand communication strategies to support overcoming individual-level behaviors related to mitigation them. They also identified a need to understand and wildland fire response to inform communi- short- and long-term effects of evacuation on In- cation efforts. This included, for example, citizen digenous communities, especially communities entrepreneurs’ patterns of behavior [14]; drivers that had experienced multiple evacuations [2]. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 15 Conclusion for future research to expand current knowledge on wildland fire communication. Wildland fire and smoke are growing threats to We found that the most prevalent recommenda- communities and ecosystems across the globe. As a tions made by researchers about communication result, fire managers and the public must communi- were related to the process of communicating cate and make decisions about how to mitigate, with diverse publics about wildland fire. This in- prepare for, respond to, and recover from increas- cludes the need to build relationships with diverse ing wildland fire and smoke exposure. The overall groups and audiences, understand and legitimize purpose of this paper was to summarize recent em- local concerns, and be transparent and sincere pirical research about how wildland fire managers, throughout the communication process. The focus agencies, and other practitioners can effectively on process highlights an important conclusion for communicate with the public about preparation for, managers: there is not a single standard message, response to, and recovery from wildland fire and messenger, or set of messages that will be effective smoke. We reviewed 32 studies and (1) character- for communicating with different publics about ized the authors and institutions conducting recent wildland fire and smoke. Rather, communication research on this topic, (2) identified and compiled may be better thought of as a process for building ideas and recommendations made by researchers to mutual understanding, relationships, and trust be- help managers understand how to effectively com- tween communities and wildland fire professionals municate with the public about wildland fire and (e.g., Olsen and Sharp 2013). smoke, and 3) synthesized researchers’ suggestions 16 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Communication strategies that prioritize greater managers can also know what are the most routine- interaction and information exchange between “ex- ly used channels and sources of information in af- perts” and communities are beneficial for several fected communities, and work to provide informa- reasons. Developing deeper mutual understanding tion through routinely used and trusted sources of and relationships with target audiences makes it information (Table 2). easier to effectively deliver locally or personally rel- evant information to them, through a greater under- Our findings suggest that the success of communi- standing of: audience need and values (Paveglio et cation efforts is further dependent on more than al 2015, Eriksen and Prior 2011). In addition, these just those individuals who seek to engage in com- relationships and understanding will inform man- munication—context also plays an important role. agers’ knowledge of what specific information will First, effective communication depends on the vi- be most salient (McCaffrey et al. 2012), and the in- ability of communications infrastructure (Jahn and formation sources that are preferred, trusted, or ha- Johansson 2018). Second, public safety also depends bitually used (e.g., Cooper et al. 2020). Interactive on residents receiving and heeding information communication strategies can also build familiar- from trusted, credible sources. Recognizing com- ity and trust between parties that will be useful munication as an iterative process highlights the during and after a crisis (e.g., Jahn and Johansson importance of understanding context for communi- 2018). Furthermore, local communities may have cation. A community’s past experience with wild- relevant local knowledge or values that conflict land fire and smoke can inform strategies for clear with “expert” opinions about what is best for that communication in the community, engage new community. As Eriksen and Prior 2011 explained, community members, and reveal important les- “people hold widely varying experiences, beliefs, at- sons for supporting adaptation to new or changing titudes and values relating to wild[land] fire, which conditions in the community (Colavito et al. 2020). influence their understanding and interpretation In essence, communication is not a one-time ex- of risk messages” (p. 1). Developing an interactive change of information, but an ongoing process that communication process can help all parties figure can build a community’s capacity to prepare for, out how to best integrate diverse viewpoints into respond to and recover from current and potential wildland fire preparation and response plans. Fire future natural hazards (Jahn and Johansson 2018; managers and community members may be better Colavito et al. 2020). able to understand how their own beliefs about the role of wildland fire may differ from others in their The articles we reviewed offered many ideas and community, and this understanding can inform ef- examples for how managers might expand the fective communication. reach of their communication activities about wild- land fire and smoke and creatively engage different Researchers’ recommendations also included sug- publics. Our lists of “People and Places” to engage gestions about the content, media, and messengers in communication activities and “Communication to use in communication. These focused on pro- Tools, Activities, and Strategies” are intended to viding accurate hazard information, maximizing capture the diversity of communication ideas de- the use of routinely used channels, and collab- scribed in the articles we reviewed. Wildland fire orating with trusted sources for information dis- managers can think of these lists as problem solv- semination. While there is no standard message or ing tools to think about where and how they might messenger that will be effective for communicat- expand the reach and depth of communication ing with different publics about wildland fire and strategies in the communities where they work. It smoke, there are best practices for message creation is not, however, a comprehensive or prescriptive and dissemination. Fire managers should include checklist of communication strategies. These lists all relevant information about the hazard, its im- provide a starting point to better understand recom- pact, time, location, and the inherent uncertainty mendations made by researchers in the reviewed or rationale about recommended actions. Messa- literature and offer examples of how managers have ges should also be designed in a way that is clear, tried to strengthen communication to support com- specific, accurate, and consistent (Table 3). Through munity adaptability to hazards. proactive engagement with diverse publics, fire Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 17 We found that most research on communication useful to expand research to better understand the about wildland fire preparation, response, and communication needs in these areas where pub- recovery was conducted by researchers affiliated lic health is increasingly affected by wildland fire with institutions in the western continental United smoke. States and Australia, and that they published their work in a wide variety of academic journals relat- Finally, we found that there is still a great deal ed to natural resources, communication, health, to learn on this topic. There is an urgent need to and hazard management. While not the primary evaluate and improve communication approaches focus of this review, we find it important to note the between fire managers, public health and emer- geographic area where much of this work is being gency response experts and managers, researchers, produced. Previous work has shown that commun- and diverse publics. Researchers suggested that ities in high fire risk areas each require particular additional research is needed in many areas, in- information and assistance to successfully navi- cluding: a deeper understanding of the drivers of gate risks (Martin, Bender, and Raish 2007, cited in individual actions and behaviors; longitudinal and Westcott et al. 2017). We suggest that it would also updated studies; understanding the effectiveness be useful to expand research into other fire-prone of messenger, medium, content, or communication regions of the world, such as the Amazon, central process; and dynamics in Indigenous communities. Asia, and the Arctic, to understand communication The need to link this work to broader disaster re- needs and how they may differ in those contexts as search, as noted by several authors, is a point we well. However, we also recognize that the apparent underscore here as relevant and timely. This is par- lack of research about wildland fire communication ticularly important as people living in fire-prone in these areas may, in part, be an artifact of using landscapes increasingly must make life-changing English search terms The relevance of the recom- decisions about how to live with and respond to re- mendations presented here also extend to regions curring and often unpredictable instances of wild- not directly experiencing wildland fires. For ex- land fire and smoke. Linking local understandings ample, wildland fire can create major air quality of wildland fire to scientific knowledge can help in- risks in communities and economies thousands of form research agendas and the relevance of findings miles away, affecting the health and safety of people (Colavito et al. 2020, citing Miles 2010; Curtis, Reid, who are far away from the flames themselves (Doer and Ballard 2012; St. George et al. 2017). & Santin, 2016; Navarro, et al. 2018). It would be 18 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Appendix A: Reviewed literature approaches, objectives, and main findings Full citations for reviewed literature are pages 23–24. Author, Year. Study location; Study ID Journal Population approach Research objectives Main findings Unfavourable attitudes towards forest fires may be symptomatic of Asah, 2014. Washington, USA; Focus group Explore how fire other problems. Unfavourable attitutudes are, in part, expressions of Forestry: An Professionals and key management professionals community discontent with the declining dependence on the forest 1 International involved in forest fire informant understand and explain for their livelihoods and inadequate community-agency interactions. Journal of Forest management and interviews public attitudes towards Professionals’ personalities and perceived organizational obstruction Research outreach forest fires and smoke undermine community–agency interactions and ulitmately interfere with the accomplishment of fire management objectives. Asfaw et al., Community- Examine how issues Several factors negatively affected residents' experiences during 2019. Ontario, Canada; based research related to pre-event evacuation, including the difficulty of obtaining timely, site-specific, International Evacuated populations using semi- preparedness and during- and reliable information; a lack of clarity about emergency protocols 2 Journal of and managers involved structured event communication to be followed; and perceived constraints in government wildfire Disaster Risk in evacuations interviews and influenced evacuation management policy. This study underscores the importance of Reduction focus groups experiences of Sandy taking into account the unique characteristics and needs of of Lake First Nation residents Indigenous communities in wildfire preparedness. Cao et al., 2016. Compare the effectiveness Appropriately designed maps prevailed over text messages for the International Western Australia; Online of maps versus traditional communication of most wildfire warning information by improving 3 Journal of Residents of wildfire- survey using text-based approaches for comprehension, elevating risk perceptions, and increasing appeal to Disaster Risk prone areas experimental communicating spatial- the public. An optimal communication approach would be to couple Reduction design related wildfire warning map designs with several imperative textual descriptors, particularly information names and addresses of safe shelters. Compare formal members Those promoting a collaborative partnership’s project to mitigate Champ et Colorado, USA; of a collaborative partnership with wildfire risk and stakeholders outside of the partnership used al., 2012. Producers and Interviews and stakeholders outside the different discourses in their communication. Collaborative partners 4 Environmental consumers of focus groups partnership in the context framed communication using a discourse of scientific management; management information about wildfires of how they understand stakeholders followed a discourse of community. It is important and frame wildfire risk to recognize and value these different frames more equally, and mitigation increase engagement and understanding. Evaluate the effectiveness Watching Fire Stories prompted increased bushfire safety activity Chapple et al., of a film to demonstrate that was sustained over at least 20 months. The film increased 2017. Australian New South Wales, Online survey fire risk, internalise risk respondents' concern for others in their community, including 5 Journal of Australia; Fires of and public awareness, and motivate neighbors and vulnerable people. Effective elements of the film Emergency Change film viewers seminar residents to be bushfire- included: archival footage of fires burning in familiar and inhabited Management prepared locations, and personalising the experience using local eyewitness accounts. Describe the development, impact, and Fires of Change exhibits increased visitors’ understanding of Arizona and New lessons learned from a the effect of climate change on fire regimes and support for Colavito et Mexico, USA; Art Paper and collaborative art exhibit management actions to address the effects of climate change on 6 al., 2020. Fire exhibit visitors and online surveys designed to communicate fire behavior. Art can be an effective mechanism for (1) increasing Ecology creators about the shifting fire understanding of fire and climate change; (2) building public support regimes of the United for management actions; and (3) developing partnerships among States Southwest diverse science, management, and artistic audiences. Managers explained that a primary assumption in disaster risk reduction is that it is necessary to improve public knowledge/ Cook et al., Explore the promise of understanding. However, many experts paradoxically recognized 7 2019. Global Victoria, Australia; Semi-structured public empowerment via that this strategy is rarely successful, and contradicts evidence Environmental "Expert" risk managers interviews public participation in that structural forces (e.g., capacity to act, financial impediments, Change bushfire management class, gender dynamics) may be more important in shaping risk. For knowledge/awareness to influence publics’ behaviours it must be wanted. A better measure of impact is the capacity of publics to act rather than solely their "awareness." Identify how locality and Successful bushfire risk communication depends on community Victoria, Australia; Case study, community features inform engagement in the process and tailoring to locality-specific Cooper et al., Residents, semi-structured resident perceptions characteristics, such as physical features, diverse groups of people, 8 2020. Journal of service providers, interviews and of bushfire risk and existing social networks, and communication pathways. Local Rural Studies representatives of key sources of information (e.g., local news outlets, long-term residents, local organisations focus groups preferences for bushfire information Country Fire Authority brigade) were generally perceived to be more timely and trustworthy than external and centralised sources. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 19 Author, Year. Study location; Study ID Journal Population approach Research objectives Main findings Develop a deeper understanding of the For promoting risk mitigation behavior, interviewees found face-to- Crow et al., Comparative strategies that agencies face/interactive approaches, outreach, and education preferable and 2015. Risks, Western USA; Fire case study professionals, residents using in-depth, use to promote wildfire more effective than website information, literature, or other passive 9 Hazards and risk mitigation, fire approaches. However, passive approaches were used more often, Crisis in Public in communities affected semi-structure professionals' sense of potentially due to "historical institutionalism" and resource constraints. Policy by recent wildfire event interviews and strategy effectiveness, "Neighbor networks" were seen as highly effective and managers focus groups and support for regulatory prefered incentives rather than regulatory approaches/ordinances to approaches promote risk mitigation behavior. Managers can increase women's bushfire awareness and preparedness by providing opportunities for hands-on, in person New South Wales, learning, where women can voice questions and concerns in a safe Eriksen, 2014. Australia; Community Online survey, Identify perceived and supportive environment. Networks, such as schools or health 10 Geographical engagement staff and focus group aids and obstacles for services, can act as a vehicle for engaging women. Piggybacking on Research volunteers from rural workshops at engaging women in fire services conference bushfire risk management other events or institutional set-ups can provide a shortcut to wider networks. Respondents felt a ‘culture change’ was paramount for a more gender-balanced and gender-just engagement approach to bushfire preparedness. Public health practitioners identified research they needed to better Errett et Present information gaps al., 2019. Washington, USA; and research priorities communicate about wildfire smoke risk, including: exposure science, Washington state “World Café identified during an health risk research, risk communication research, behavior change International 11 Journal of practitioners and Method” interactive workshop, and interventions research, and legal and policy research. Participants academics with small group with the ultimate goal of identified a need for communication-related research to evaluate the Environmental expertise in wildfire discussions reducing community-wide effectiveness of specific messages, how to effectively communicate Research and smoke and health risks from exposure to risk to resistant populations, address fear/outrage/anxiety, Public Health wildfire smoke communicate inconsistencies across air quality indices, and identify the reach of communication mechanisms (e.g., radio, print). Australia and USA; Online A social norm message was found to significantly increase wildfire Howe et al., Americans from M-Turk experiments Determine whether preparedness in a hypothetical game. When the equivalent message (pilot study); residents (pilot studies) communicating social was trialed in an actual field study by surveying residents twice 12 2018. Natural Hazards Review in Victoria and New to inform online norms is an effective (19 days apart, on average), the number of preparedness actions South Wales (field survey (field way of increasing performed by residents increased by 11%. These results indicate study) study) preparedness for wildfires that social norm messages can play a useful role as part of a larger information campaign about wildfire preparedness. Explain how adaptive This study showed how a network of crisis communications specialists Jahn and Västmanland County, Observation capacity is accomplished compiled, organized, revised, and made crisis information available Johansson Sweden; Members of and analysis through communication through a combination of stable, yet flexible communication practices. 13 2018. Corporate crisis communication of discourse processes and can These practices included communications to (1) integrate people as Communications network established to in telephone contribute to enhancing members to the network, (2) structure how network members interact, respond to wildfire meetings disaster resilience (3) contextualize and delegate actions, and (4) position the network in a larger social system. Citizen entrepreneurs are highly motivated community members Comparative who can help resource-constrained wildfire agencies encourage Koebele et al., Colorado, USA; case study Introduce the concept of mitigation on private property by directly engaging with wildland 14 2015. Society Wildfire protessionals, using semi- citizen entrepreneurs and urban interface (WUI) residents. Citizen entrepreneurs may be and Natural local residents structured examine the role they can particularly adept at engaging fellow WUI residents in interactive, Resources interviews and play in wildfire outreach face-to-face manners and can alleviate agencies's personnel focus groups constraints by engaging WUI residents during brief windows of opportunity for effective outreach that occur immediately post-fire. Effective crisis communication leadership involves: (1) crisis perceptiveness, (2) humility, (3) flexibility, (4) presence, and (5) California, USA; Semi-structured cooperation. Strategies for effective crisis communication leadership Government leaders interviews, include: using report-outs, limiting jargon, building pre-crisis Liu et al., 2020. across the USA who quantitative Identify crisis relationships, following established plans, trusting employees with 15 Communication experienced crisis, content communication strategies information, deferring to those with content expertise, offering internal Studies Government leaders analysis of USA that leaders can employ praise, and providing resources for employees who themselves during the Tubbs Fire in government during crises are crisis survivors. Challenges faced in crisis communication California communication leadership include: frequent turnover among government employees, conflicting missions and crisis response priorities among government organizations, limited resources, and leaders who are not experienced crisis communicators. Public health messaging was widely shared and understood, and Explore smoke-affected social media played a central role. However, some participants Tasmania, Australia; wanted more detailed, timely, and practical information or Marfori et al., Residents/households peoples' responses to 16 2020. Frontiers in the Huon Valley Semi-structured smoke-related health recommendations, or noted that messages about wildfire were, in Public Health recruited to be in a interviews advisories and evaluate at times, contradictory or dominant over messages about smoke. Communication about smoke and fire hazard should continue HEPA cleaner study the acceptability of HEPA cleaners for home use to be disseminated through multiple avenues, with a focus on disseminating simple messages through social media and making more detailed information available from a trusted central source. 20 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Author, Year. Study location; Study ID Journal Population approach Research objectives Main findings Field experiment Investigate whether including mailing parcel-level wildfire risk Meldrum et al., Colorado, USA; households 1 assessment data can Providing parcel-specific wildfire risk information can influence 17 2021. Natural Households in Western of 3 versions of be used to “nudge” behavior. Informational and social comparison nudges may not change Hazards Colorado a "nudge" letter homeowners to engage how many people engage with wildfire mitigation organizations, but and measuring further with wildfire risk both nudge types can affect who engages. follow-up visits mitigation education and to a website support Propose and test a There is a need to gradually build complexity of messaging using Mylek and Australian Capital Postal survey modified "Integrative traditional one-way mediums for simple messages and through 18 Schirmer, 2020., Territory and New to urban/rural Complexity" (IC) scoring these mediums encourage engagement with mediums that better Forest Policy South Wales, residential method in order to better lend themselves to building greater integrative complexity. Those and Economics Australia; Residents addresses target communication with lower IC scores typically preferred one-way communication about fuel management to conducive to short, simple messages. Those with higher IC various groups preferred methods more conducive to including detailed information. California, USA; Homeowners, fire Homeowner Describe education, Nader and De departments, youth, survey, various outreach, and applied Fire safe councils and the UC Cooperative Extension (UCCE) have Lasaux, 2015. county supervisors, field training research projects 19 volunteer fire projects, undertaken in wildfire- worked together to implement education and applied research California prone counties through activities in wildfire-prone counties. UCCE provides science-based Agriculture department chiefs, publications, and forestry and wildfire information to help the fire safe councils fulfill their realtors and concerned youth education partnerships between educational mission. residents, policymakers, programs fire safe councils and UC parents Cooperative Extension California, Oregon, Three challenges emerged that complicated the process of Montana, and communicating about smoke: (1) uncertainty about the effectiveness South Carolina, Identify challenges and of communication strategies, (2) confusion caused by inconsistent Olsen et USA; Purposive Case study opportunities related to messages from different agencies, and (3) internal priorities about 20 al., 2014. sample of individuals using semi- communication (within the importance of communicating with stakeholders. Potential Environmental involved in fire or structured agencies or to the public) approaches to address communication challenges were: (1) Management smoke management, interviews for management of smoke prioritize coordinated smoke and communication management, (2) including: government from wildland fire allocate agency resources specifically for training in communication, officials, NGO's, (3) leverage social networks, and (4) build long-term, personal private landowners relationships. Trust and trustworthiness can be built interpersonally and institutionally. Integrity and sincerity were factors that enhanced respondents' Olsen and perceived trustworthiness of agencies. Good communication practices Sharp, 2013. Australia and USA; Comparative Identify common factors (e.g., being upfront about "sensitive subjects"; two-way exchanges; 21 International Fire-affected residents, case using influencing community-semi-structured agency trust-building in active outreach) and meaningful engagement (e.g., clear integration Journal of land managers interviews wildfire management of public feedback into decisions and actions, inclusive, interactive) Wildland Fire helped build a more trusting relationship with agencies. Flexible policies are important for implementation of locally appropriate outreach and management plans. Positive citizen–agency relations need to be long-term and Assess public opinion developed well before a fire occurs if post-fire actions are to be Olsen and Oregon, USA; of citizen–agency supported by communities. Positive relationships develop by Shindler, 2010. Citizens who have Mail survey interactions, trust in engaging citizens in real problem discussion and deliberation. 22 International demonstrated past informed by federal agencies, and Respondents indicated broad acceptance for several post-fire Journal of interest in local forest prior interviews measure acceptance of management strategies (i.e., erosion control, replanting, reseeding), Wildland Fire issues post-fire management but acceptance was dependent on trust between communities and strategies agencies. Many respondents indicated they lost trust in agencies because of how agencies handled forest planning after recent fires. Local rural landowners' and some local firefighters' experiences during the Columbia Complex Fire appear to have increased their distrust Washington, USA; Case study Provide the basis for about the effectiveness of externally-based fire response. Residents Paveglio et al., Residents, community using semi- outreach strategies that who came into conflict with firefighters felt that their perspectives were 23 2015. Journal of leaders, wildfire and structured will best reduce conflicts never considered by the Incident Command (IC) team. Residents Rural Studies forest managers interviews among communities and felt the IC system was not able or willing to shift to protect locally hazard response teams held values and conflicts were never resolved. Better mechanisms are needed to understand where mismatches in values and priorities between local communities and IC organizations will occur. Victoria, Australia; Arts-based programming promoted positive agency-community Phillips et al., Parents of young Explore key stakeholder relationships and had a positive impact on community networks. people participating in perspectives on the Perceived limitations of the program included concerns about 2016. Australian 24 Journal of arts-based education Semi-structured effectiveness of an arts- whether or not the program promoted new knowledge or if program, community interviews based initiative to enhance knowledge translates to actual preparedness, local social dynamics, Emergency leaders, Country Fire community bushfire and concerns about ongoing resourcing. Community engagement Management Authority (CFA) staff & resilience initiatives reveal complex social relations. The benefits of this program facilitators initiative lie in strengthening community networks rather than explicit educational outcomes. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery 21 Author, Year. Study location; Study ID Journal Population approach Research objectives Main findings Investigate how "Fire Respondents understood the intent of the Fire Danger Ratings Reid and Beilin, Danger Rating" messages (FDRs), but did not follow their recommendations because they Victoria, Australia; Full- are interpreted by thought the complex local knowledge generated by their everyday 25 2014. Society time residents who work Semi-structured residents and how those experiences of the physical landscape and local narratives about and Natural Resources in tourism and retail interviews interpretations influenced past fires gave them a better understanding of fire risk than FDRs. evacuation actions taken Fire management agencies can work with communities to develop a during wildfire event co-constructed view of bushfire risk that incorporates local bushfire knowledge into Fire Danger Ratings. Western USA; Rice and Jahn, Community residents Examine how communities 2020. Journal opposed to fuels Ethnographic remember and forget Both cases pointed to the importance of involving residents in treatment, Office observation, lessons through disaster preparedness to facilitate community efforts to disseminate 26 of Applied Communication of Emergency semistructured interviews, and everyday communication accurate information about risks and best practices. Local resilience Management training surrounding their practices were enabled and constrained by national frameworks and Research participants, public content analysis preparedness activities policies related to resilience. commenters The authors suggest divergent perspectives on forest management India, South Africa, Explore how fundamental come from differences in: (1) historical views of ecosystem Rist et al., 2016. USA/Koyukon differences in ecological characteristics and change, (2) temporal and spatial foci, (3) Athabascan villages; knowledge between actors perspectives on drivers of change, (4) perspectives on the impact 27 Environmental Community members, Multi-case study contribute to suboptimal of resource use, (5) views of the relative importance of system Management scientists/researchers, outcomes in forest components, (6) prioritization of ecological processes and forest resource managers management products, and (7) external narratives, local observations, or place-based research. Limited progress in many forests is symptomatic of a need to pay more detailed attention to points of divergence. Literature California, Montana, review, and Wyoming, USA; comparative Build framework of key Steelman and case studies characteristics associated Less conventional disaster response strategies were more publicly 28 McCaffrey, Federal and local officials working on using semi- with best communication acceptable when pre-existing communication and relationships 2013. Natural structured practices and apply existed between managers and community. Building strong Hazards the fire, members interviews, framework to three case relationships before a fire starts may thus be more important than of the affected local triangulation studies of wildfires the response strategy in shaping outcomes.community with archival material Understand what kinds Information sources that were most used during fires were family/ Mail survey, of information sources friends/neighbors, mass media, and maps. Information sources found California, New Mexico, to be most useful and/or trustworthy were: local fire department, Steelman et al., Arizona, and Colorado, follow-up people who were affected maps, conversations with local Forest Service representatives or 29 2015. Natural USA; Residents telephone by a wildfire used, trusted, survey, literature and found useful to better Incident Management Team representative, and law enforcement. Hazards affected by five large review and inform more effective This suggests people turn to the information sources that are familiar, wildfire events synthesis communication during a regardless of their perceived usefulness or trustworthiness. Shifting disaster the patterns of what is used during the disaster may entail shifting the patterns of which sources are used before the disaster. Determine residents’ exposure to, Health communications should be simple, short, and tailored to Sugerman understanding of, vulnerable groups. Recall, understanding, and compliance with 30 et al.,2012. California, USA; Phone survey, random digit and compliance with nontechnical emergency messages (e.g., “stay indoors,”) were Journal of health Residents messages broadcast to higher than technical messages (“use N95 respirators during communication dialing reduce exposure to air cleanup”). Message compliance was lower among vulnerable pollution from nearby populations, the elderly, less educated, minorities, and those of low wildfires income. Identify how message Sutton et Colorado, USA; Local, content, message style, Retweeting was associated with messages about ‘hazard impact’ al., 2014. state, and federal Content and and public attention and ‘advisory’ messages that were broadly applicable to the entire 31 Information, organizations serving in style analysis of tweets to to tweets relate to population. Other factors associated with retweeting were: using an public-safety capacity the behavioral activity imperative sentence, more direct exposure (# followers, # friends), Communication who Tweeted about an inform predictive of retransmitting (i.e. and clear language. Factors that were not associated with retweeting & Society active wildfire models retweeting) a message in were: number of prior messages posted, exclamatory content, disaster capitalization for emphasis, and inclusion of a weblink. Examine relationships There were significant geographic differences in information California, USA; between residents’ sources used before and during wildfire, with residents in more rural Velez et Residents in wildfire- Secondary wildfire knowledge and areas relying on television, radio, Reverse 911, and friends and family al., 2017. prone areas away analysis of experience, readiness for information. Respondents most frequently used television for 32 International from urban core and previous actions, and media choice both daily news and wildfire information, and most people intended Journal of adjacent to forested telephone to determine how to to seek information from the same sources in the future. Television, Wildland Fire landscapes survey integrate preparedness in particular, was powerful for disseminating information, but should information into messages be complemented with locally trusted, two-way, engagement-based communication practices that allow for feedback. 22 Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery Literature cited These sources provided relevant framing information but were not included in the review. Full citations for reviewed literature are on the following page. 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Communicating with the public about wildland fire: A resource for practitioners to plan engagement strategies This infographic summarizes recommendations from a review of 32 research studies about communicating with the public about wildland fire and smoke.1 How to use it Recom mendations were grouped into three categories: Practitioners can use this document to brain- 1 the process of communication, storm ways to engage in communication 2 key content to include in messages, and about wildland fire with the diverse groups 3 which messengers and communication media to use: in areas where you work. The list of recom- mendations presented here is not exhaustive, rather it is a starting point for consideration. Content What might you include This work was conducted by the University of Oregon, in your message(s)? and funded by the Northwest Fire Science Consortium. Process Messengers The Northwest Fire Science Consortium works to accelerate the & media awareness, understanding, and adoption of wildland fire science in How might you Which messengers and/or Washington and Oregon, and is funded by the Joint Fire Science effectively engage with media outlets might you use to Program’s Fire Science Exchange Network.your audience(s)? reach your audience(s)? 1 Santo, Huber-Stearns and Smith. Communicating with the public about wildland fire preparation, response, and recovery: A literature review of recent research with recom- mendations for managers. Ecosystem Workforce Program Working Paper # 109. Fall 2021. University of Oregon. Ecosystem EcosystemO loiiEaoN School of Journalism and CommunicationWorkforce Program • Oregon State UniversiWtyo rkforce ProgramCenter for Science Research Communication Extension Service